I DO NOT HAVE A TOPIC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

I DO NOT HAVE A TOPIC - Essay Example Pollution could also destroy the ozone layer thus altering the climatic condition of the region. This would significantly affect the residents since in terms of tourism since it is one of the major economic activities in the area (Mullerat & Brennan, 2011). †¢ Mission statement: they aim at being the best-loved boutique hotel and restaurant by the guests, owners, and all stakeholders by provide excellent service and care and delivering financial returns to investors (Clarke & Chen, 2009). The company has been involved in multiple social responsibilities. However, regarding the loyalty of the customers that has enabled the company to be among the best in the world, it is only fair that the company continue giving back to the society. The headquarter of Kimpton is located in one of the largest cities in the area (Sun, Stewart, & Pollard, 2010). This means that the population in the area is high: and densely populated. With the improved economic conditions in the area due to high tourism levels, most of the population here own cars and the remaining part of the population use public transport. Some of these cars could result into air pollution if they happen to emit fumes. In addition, this city houses various companies and industries. Such industries pollute the environment through emission of dangerous fumes and introducing waste material into the water sources. Considering that the organization is aimed at creating a good brand image, reducing the levels of pollution is a good move to ensure that the organization saves money from the residents of the area. The reason is that air or water pollution could result into multiple health defects and reducing or eliminating them saves this medical money for such residents (Hancock, 2009). The program is very cost effective especially considering that the company already campaigns for the use of renewable energy in the

Representation Of Women In Advertising Cultural Studies Essay

Representation Of Women In Advertising Cultural Studies Essay Advertisements are one of the most cultural factors which mould and reflect society. They are a ubiquitous and inevitable part of everyones life: even if we do not read a newspaper or watch television, the images posted over our urban surrounding are inescapable. The advertisement translates these statements to us as human statements: they are given a humanly symbolic exchange value. (Wiliamson, 1976)   This paper will discuss the change and contrast or the representation of women in television advertisements. It will deconstruct two British adverts from the 1960s and their contemporary counter parts; as well as examine the idea of different notions of beauty for women and stereotypes relating to these notions and identify stereotypes relating to beauty. It will study the ways in which meaning is communicated through the use of these codes and conventions in television advertisements. Therefore I will look at the visual semiotics in each element of the advert which includes language, image and information and its target market and audience, hence analyzing according to semiotics. This paper will analyze the advertisements use and manipulation of stereotypes relating to beauty, ideas about body image and the maintenance of an ideal standard of beauty. Many theorists believe that perceived gender roles form the bases for the development of gender identity and thus it is vital to study the theories used to enforce these gender stereotypes and their shifts. Eaglys social role theory implies that gender roles based on stereotypes have been developed due to sexual division of labour and societal expectations. Eagly (1987) differentiates among the common and age scopes of gender-stereotyped features. The common character is categorized by elements, such as nurturance and emotional expressiveness, mostly linked with household activities, and thus, with women. The age role is categorized by characteristics such as hostility and sovereignty, mostly linked with communal activities, and thus, with men. Gender roles strongly influence behaviour when cultures support gender stereotypes and build up strong expectations based on those stereotypes (Eagly 1987). According to Deaux and Lewis gender stereotypes differ on four dimensions: traits, rol e behaviors, physical characteristics, and occupations (Deaux and Lewis 1983). This work is further developed by Berm who stated that Gender stereotypes are implanted through childhood socialization and are reinforced in adulthood. This thought is supported by Berms Gender schema theory, which presents the idea that children learn how their cultures define the roles of both women and men and then internalize the knowledge acquired as gender schema. (bem 1993) Feminist legal theory is based on the belief that the law is instrumental in womens historical subordination. There are two elements of the feminist legal theory. First, feminist jurisprudence aims to explain the ways in which the law played a role in womens former subordinate status and in the latter, feminist legal theory is dedicated to changing womens status through a reworking of the law and its approach to gender. According to Gunther women in television adverts prior to 1970s were not shown to be in paid work, and when they were, they would be stereotypical jobs such as a nurse or personal assistant. Housewife culture declined after the 1950s, but it was still common during the 1960s and 1970s (Gunther, 1995 :34). Content analysis of advertising in television during the 1970s provided strong evidence of the existence of stereotyping. All adverts which featured women showed three quarters were for kitchen and bathroom products. Men were viewed with powerful authoritative roles and provided the dependable voice-over (Ibid: 35) Research in the late 1970s and early 1980s reinforced a continuation of these trends, with men shown at work and women as housewives and mothers at home. Nonetheless, it became more common for men to be shown at home as well, in the role of husband or father, and the range of womens occupations increased (ibid : 36, 37). This is reminiscent of the Social Learning Theory. During the late 1970s women in advertising played a central focus on beauty, cleanliness, family and pleasing others. In the 1980s TV advertising started to conceptualize the idea of the busy working women by offering solutions to the working woman, who was assumed, would still perform household tasks such as cooking and cleaning. Pg 55Through the early 1990s, a study was conducted of 500 prime-time TV ads in the UK, by Cumber batch (reported in Strinati, 1995: 86),and it was deduced that advertiser had seemingly become vary of many years advertisers were reluctant to do anything different from the conservative stereotypical gender roles until in the 1970s and 1980s feminists took the protest to roads. Pg 55 Television audience are bombarded with images and slogans through advertisements. In 2000 Nielsen Media Research and Radio Advertising Bureau survey concluded that the average U.S. household, watched more than seven hours of television per day (Albarran, 2000). Audience subconsciously memorize slogans and absorb images without questioning them. This is known as the cultivation effect (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan and Signorieli (1980)) .The effect of this exposure produces cultivation, or teaching of a common worldview, common roles and common values. (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan Signorieli, 1980, p.10). In order to understand the change in female stereotypes we must apply a semiotic analysis to the advertisements in the contrasting time frames.Williamson (1978) stated that semiotics studies looks at any system of signs whether the substance is verbal, visual or a complex mixture of both. (Semiotics and Ideology (n.d) para.2). Ideology is the meaning made necessary by the conditions of society while helping to perpetuate those conditions. (Williamson (1978) p.13). We must first discuss intersubjectivity, (OSullivan, Hartley, Saunders, Montgomery, Fiske, (1994) p.157 158) As the audience In order to understand advertisements we must learn how to read them. It is vital to deconstruct them by the use of encoding and decoding. Encoding is performed by the transmitter of the advertisement message and decoding is a process accomplished by the receiving audience. The visual message is the most important element of a television advert because through it, its semiotic system of codes and co nventions it attracts potential buyers of the product. Most female personal care products target consumers by offering them an idealized reader-image (McCracken (1992 p.20). Thus television advertisements attract the audience by selling them visions of how they would like to see themselves. The codes and conventions on the advert have been transgressed by Dove which as a brand has taken a sharp turn away from traditional conventional ideologies of female perceptions. Advertisements must take into account not only the inherent qualities and attributes of the products they are trying to sell, but also the way in which they can make those properties mean something to usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The components of advertisements are variable and not necessarily part of one language or social discourse. Advertisements rather provide a structure which is capable of transforming the language of objects into that of people, and vice versa. Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisements, 1978, p.12 (flake doc) WHAT IS TRYING TO BE SAID HERE!According to Gerbner ; common media learning has increased television viewing is associated with more stereotypical views, especially of gender (Allan Scott, 1996). Gerbner, Gross, Morgan and Signorieli (1980) argued that for frequent heavy viewers, television virtually subsumes and monopolizes other sources of information, ideas and consciousness. Furthermore, the frequent viewers perceive the world as television depictions . (Gerbner, et al., 1980). Dove old advert The advertisements of the early 1960s begin with a male voice over. This man narrates the advert and his claims of Dove being new and revolutionary and this is reinforced through female narration. This can be said to be reflective of male patriarchy dominant at during the late 1950s and early 1960.The key word in the advert is new and is repeated, in each case before the brand name. The readers eye is drawn simultaneously to the models eyes and face, and the text onscreen. The Advert emphasized as the brand name and thus the text anchors the connotative meaning of the product but new is the first word you read. Cosmetics advertisers aim to reduce competition by conveying that their products are the newest product with the latest technological advances. Emphasis in adverts is placed on the new key property of the product. For example, Dove creams and cleanses your skin and boasts that other products only cleanse and dry ; here, there is a strong implication of criticism of other brand s and products and this encourages women to be critical of themselves and their peers in using wearing of out-of-date brands that do not embody the latest key properties or technology. The beginning of the advert contains a picture of the products packaging; this is what the audience is to look for when buying the product. The image of the dove represents Greek connotations of Aphrodite, goddess of beauty and love thus representing traditional female beauty and characteristics. Next the audiences see a perfectly manicured female hand , this continues to reinforce female notions of beauty. Once the product is unpackaged the bar of soap is curvy, this could questionably parallel the unpack aging of the female body which like the soap is also curvy. The words completely new are draw upon the eyes of the audience eye drawn and this point is reinforced by the narrative. The audience is introduced to the product by a male voice over. A Female voice over refers to the cleaning of the product cleaning, a subtle reference to the position of women in the home,  ¼ filling of bar may also be representative of cooking. She continues to talk about cleansing, the product cleans and creams and this is repeated and is reinforced to the audience. The male voice then reinforces the positives of the products; his commentary is similar to that of a scientists new discovery. Its can be argued that the mode in the advert acts as a guinepig for the experimental use of the product, it is her purpose to serve the male voice over. We are only able to view the models face, and towards the end of the advert her makeup changes as if she were ready to go out, for a date perhaps, and in this transformation she is rewarded by an anonymous male, whose hand we see as he caresses her cheek continuing to reinforce the previous Aphrodite notions beauty and love and desire to please in a patriarchal society and fulfill beauty expectations. The ad consists of a visual subject which in this case is the soap and an object, the soap bar, while subconsciously portraying the subject as the women and the object as her Female curves. This reinforces traditional gender stereotypes as the objects beauty is acknowledged by male presence. SANA U relocate this I will now introduce and analyze recent Dove television adverts according to semiotics. I am looking to see how the representation of women is conveyed and to see if the operation of patriarchy is apparent. I suspect that I will be able to deduce that all of these adverts operate patriarchy through similar ideologies presented through, images and articles in magazine about their products. The advert then shows the ordinary women having fun at photo shoot. In the new television advert the models are relaxed and it appears as if they are chatting to their girlfriends. The self-touching conveys the impression of narcissism, admiring ones own body and displaying it to others. Furthermore, in the firming body products campaign we are first introduced to the model via an audition we see real women, wearing ordinary clothing, jeans and simple tops and not glamorous silk gowns. They are all different shapes, sizes and ethnicities. The larger women unconventionally and ironically are wearing lower cut blouses. Next the audience views the women using of products in ordinary household environments. The use of a female voice portrays societal liberisation of women and her voice has a relaxed jovial tone as she refers to size 8 women. The female voice of dove, implies that size 8 women note real women but merely fictional supermodels. She refers to large hips and pear shape, this healthy fruit are Dove a promoting a healthier fuller figure. Women are in white lingerie this mirrors the color of the dove which is free and liberated. A twenty first century interpretation of the dove may be interpreted as the present greater liberation, peace and freedom which is reinforced in Doves new ad campaign. During the photo shoot there is a male voice present in the background. He wears black perhaps because he not as free and liberated as women and is confined to the antiquity of black which contrasts the free soaring spirit of Dove. In comparison to the1960s ad, the earlier is more informative about the product where as the new advert, focuss on the self in comparison to the prior which focuss on the product. In the new advert the narrator only names the products and reinforces that their tested on real women The absence of obvious sex appeal in this ad displaces the use of the product as a method of attracting the male. Instead the womans focus is on attaining for herself the advertised qualities embodied other women shown. The ad uses empowerment to sell the product because the majority of women in their late thirties or early forties who are considering firming products are likely to have already attracted a male. It is the qualities embodied by real women that the ad is making desirable, and then attainable through the product itself. Dove claim they have changed all this by revoloutionalizing societal perceptions of beauty. By presenting real women in their lingerie the brand expresses the societal liberation of female freedom and sexuality. Women in their campaign are not presented with traditional sexual connotations as vixens; hour glass body shapes, long hair, large bust, instead the women in the 21st century ad campaign are perfectly flawed. This campaign broke stereotypical rules and took beauty taboos head on. The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty (CFRB) textually reveals that CFRB employs feminist signs to reference a key binary resistance in feminist politics discussing liberation and oppression; in the presentation of an ideology of real beauty. This message promotes Dove as a mechanism of change to the view of societal perceptions of limiting and unattainable female beauty, a position influential feminists support in mainstream media and through corporate partnership. This analysis suggests that real beauty is a new stereotype within the dominant ideology of female beauty; the attributes of thin, young, and blonde are replaced by many shapes, sizes, colours and ages, yet the real women are presented to arouse public dialogue about their physical beauty while promoting Dove and its products; resulting in sexual objectification of their image. Also as the definition of real beauty embraces self-esteem, CFRB produces a demanding, oppressive beauty stereotype for female consumption than the do minant stereotype which emphasizes only physical standards. Ultimately, CFRB support the patriarchal view of female identity as a consumer through the ideological consumption of real beauty and fiscal consumption of Dove products. This analysis provides a history of the relationships between feminists women in advertising, and the assembly of beauty advertising to observe the construction structure of CFRB. In earlier decades the aim for women was to attract a man and be in a loving relationship. The focus has shifted, however, and the goal now is to be slim, attractive, and happy, regardless of lifestyle, and whether or not an individual is in a successful relationship or not. It is through inter-subjectivity that cultural identity is affirmed. Just as advertising influences culture, so too does it reflect trends and cultural values. Advertising in womens products represents a utopian view of the world and sells the product by selling stereotypical aspirations to attain the lifestyles or the looks represented in their texts. Henceforth, Margaret Duffy claimed that advertising, Popular academics have seen it as anti-humanistic, a creator of unnecessary needs and desires. (Duffy as cited by Manca and Manca, 1994, p.5). Unlike big clothing brands like Gucci or Prada for example, self care products cannot be identified by displaying the brand name in the actual cream or soap bar but instea d, advertisements such as this encourage women to look critically at each others physical appearance and gossip about how other women look. The old dove advert exemplifies elements of both the social learning and the gender schema theory. As we are socialized into our gender roles females traditionally have been concerned about their appearance and focuses on trying to please the opposite sex. This is reiterated by doves ad campaign buy the males reassuring hand of the womans soft beautiful skin. This social acceptance is reinforced by the gender schema theory which describes women as gentile creatures. Thus these two work hand in hand in a repetitive cycle. In contrast to this contemporary dove advertisements are influenced by feminist legal theory. The female voice over mirrors social power acquired by women in the early 20th century and after WWII. This is made even more apparent by the partly dressed models that break traditional gender stereotypes of beautiful pin up women as they appear in all shapes and sizes. FLAKE intro the second ad into the esay Chocolate seems more decadent than other confectionery because we have been sold this myth. The audience treats the signifiers in advertisements as though they are truths rather than our own constructions, which are enabled by refined publicity teams. This tendency to accept signs stems advertising has signified a cultural scepticism which in return has acted as the signifier for a new system of parody in advertisement which humours the system of unconscious connotations whilst achieving the goal of selling the product within the same system of denotations and connotations which it ridicules. The Cadburys Flake television advertisements of the 1970s and 80s depict young, beautiful white women in romantic dreamscapes, i.e. the poppy field, the Victorian-style bathroom, content in their independence, yet eroticised by the sexual relationship they share with their phallic chocolate bars The advert begins with the flake girls licking her lips, she then holds up the erected chocolate bar which becomes the central focal point for the audience. We are given time to read the name of the chocolate which then is followed by music. As the music proceeds the flake girl begins to unwrap the bar and slowly and places it in her mouth not taking a bite this may be interpreted to mirror the sexual acts. The girl presents traditional beauty appearance, her makeup draws attention to her eyes and lips her straight hair also represents phallic images and traditional beauty connotations similar to that in the Dove adverts of 1960s presenting the beauty of Aphrodite. She places the chocolate seductively in her mouth and as the sun shines behind her she enters into her sexual fantasy a beach with a back horse. This stallion may be representative of a man, strong, learn and being lead by a strong female from the 1960s. She finally smiles as she enjoys the creamy chocolate. Most prominent in this advert is the female voice over, this being representative of political change. . These images appeal to the consumer, who makes connections between the visual subject, the chocolate and the visual object the chocolate bar in contrast to the subconscious subject sex and the subconscious object the lack of the male penis. The substitution of the chocolate bar for phallic images is all the more erotic when the audience is exposed to close-up images of white females rouge stained or gloss-laden lips wrapping themselves around the brown bar. The attributes of the chocolate; its distinctive shape and texture are connoted into a meaning of sexual desire and satisfaction. These myths then become the Flakes identity. Flake has removed the idea of the Flake girl who traditionally has sensually nibbled the chocolate bar since 1959. The new campaign aims to focus on the beauty and delicacy of the Flake bar, as opposed to the Flake girl succumbing to the mouth watering chocolate. The ad features Russian model Yulia Lobova and 200 metres of yellow fabric. The fabric twirls around the model as a yellow dress in an analogy of the Flake bar. For the past seven months the UK Cadbury team have been working on creating a new campaign that helps give Flake a fresh, contemporary approach, said Phil Rumbol, UK marketing director at Cadbury. We wanted to focus on the beauty of the product rather than just the sensuality of eating it we consider Flake to be a truly unique product and its still going strong in its 90th year. The signifiers in the new advert are the colours purple and yellow from which the audience picks up on the significant code and recognises the brand. The floating women in the luxurious material signify the beauty and luxury of the brand and product. The material unwraps a woman where s previously it was the ale phallic. This advertisement can be used for a global audience, the lacking of language ad simple images sounds and colours relates to a wider audience. The models makeup is also subtle in comparison to previous flake girls. The traditional beauty and enhancement of eyes and lips is not as apparent. Flake old advert- influenced by feminist legal theory and like women rebels against the societal perception and position of women. This is exemplified by the female voiceover. Ironically this advertisement presents another female stereotype of the sexual women and not a home maker. This is a stereotype which was not taught during the early 1960s however female presence in society was seeing a change, perhaps Cadbury were attempting to create a new stereotype or perhaps trying to break traditional conventions and set new set new social learning theoretical perspectives. New ad- Cadbury has once again created a new stereotype but this time of not gender but of pleasure , presenting their chocolate not with sexual connotations. However Cadbury still use a female who is lost in some form of desire however this advert focuses on the chocolate rather than its The desirable indulgence in this ad is the chocolate itself rather than the subconscious portrayal of a phallic image. The fantasy is constant however the nature of the new adverts emphasizes on the changes of gender stereotypical roles in comparison to the old one. CONCLUSION Having explored the ideals of femininity in television advertisements we can argue that they are revealed to be carefully constructed in their layout, choice of colour, packaging and the product itself, text, language used, and which model has been photographed to represent the brands ideology through the codes and conventions it adheres to. In some adverts consumption of the product is implied to lead to being loved, cared for and protected by a man and this is portrayed as highly desirable in the case of dove. In contrast the new campaign shows a female empowered to stand alone without masculine approval, and to consume the product as a luxury for herself, not to make her more attractive to a man. Flake In conclusion the advertising has evolved from traditional notions of female stereotypes alternative to that of dove to minimalist advertising which is based on consumers socially acquired knowledge for e.g it will be commonly known for all the audiences the colours of flakes packaging similarly to this the logo of dove and the colours of the packaging. Even though gender stereotypical roles in adverts have tremendously evolved since 1960s while performing the semiotics of both the adverts an interesting pattern of similarity lead to decipher a rare connection between the new dove ad and the old flake ad. In the dove new ad the confidence of women to be comfortable with their appearance no matter how they look without male dominance and the confidence of the flake girl in the old advert to have her own fantasy where she leads the masculine horse figure shows power and dominance portrayed by both then dove women and the flake girls. It could be argued that Cadbury has been ahead of times in modern portrayal of gender stereotyping however it still follows the traditional pattern to gender stereotyping showing a stereotypically beautiful white Russian model while Dove has broken this convention and introduced a new form of gender stereotypical role. Creating new stereotypes. In addition, many television adverts carry an implication of women being confident, successful and strong. From closer study it becomes clearer that this masks the operation of patriarchy which uses representations of women in adverts to suppress the empowerment and independence of women in real life. Again Dove differs here from other advertising campaigns by showing positive images of women who do not conform to the unattainable ideal standard of beauty shown in other ads and Cadbury create a new implication of female empowerment. However such implications were evident in adverts during the 1960s. It is obvious that advertising plays a major part in creating and maintaining the consumer culture in which we live. It can be argued that if the public had greater awareness to the negative images in the mass media in reference to women, they would be able to distinguish between their actual needs and those created by factors such as peer pressure, advertising, and low self-confidence. Cash Pruzinsky (1990, p.51) stated two perspectives which form our appearance, one from the inside and one from the outside. The relationship between these perspectives is central when discussing self-esteem and body image, but it is our physical appearance which provides advertisements with their material. Despite this it is our feelings about how we look from the inside and our insecurities which enable adverts to work. Fiske says, An advert is only the inter textual circulation of its meanings, a set of unfinished meanings in process. Texts are not signifying objects but agents, instances and reso urces of popular culture. (1991, p.124 125) It is only when being read or viewed and its meaning interpreted by individuals that the advert becomes whole and performs the function of selling a product. Without human interaction an advertisement can only be looked at as a manifestation of the world surrounding it.

An Interpretation of the Ghost :: science

An Interpretation of the Ghost Ghost is something that some believe and some won't. But still most of them get frighten to some extend, when they watch terrific horror films. Perhaps it is due to the terrific sounds or special effects that imposes ones mind. But there is a specific science that has the ability to explain the concepts of the spirits or ghosts called Adhyathma (A study centered around the soul)in the Ancient Indian script. According to the teachings of the ancient scripture Bhagavad Gita, the brain (and the body in general) is only a mechanical device used by the spirit soul (the actual self). It is described that just as a passenger rides in a chariot, in the same way the spirit soul is riding in this vehicle of the body. The scriptures state that one who commits suicide will have to remain as a ghost for the period of time that one's body was supposed to exist. A ghost is nothing but a person with no physical body. According to the sankhya system, our body is made up of two coverings, the sukshma-sharira (subtle body) and the sthula-sharira (gross body). The gross body is made up of the panca-bhutas (earth, water, fire, air and ether), and the subtle body is made up of the mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi) and identification (ahankara). It is the subtle body which accompanies the soul into the next body at the time of death. The gross physical body has a particular duration of existence based on one's prarabdha karma(results of the deeds of his previous incarnation).When one commits suicide, one brings one's physical body to an end prior to it having completed it's allotted time. One's next body is prepared in the akasha (ether), ready to manifest at the end of one's allotted time (the normal death of one's physical body). Thus if one was supposed to live for 100 years, one's next body will be waiting for you after that 100 years. If for some reason one were to commit suicide at the age of 50, then one's next body will not be ready, and one will remain in an ethereal state until the balance 50 years of existence pass. This state of existing as a ghost is a great suffering for the individual, as they lack the senses through which to act. The desires to act remain, as the mind, intelligence and identification of the subtle body are still existing. An Interpretation of the Ghost :: science An Interpretation of the Ghost Ghost is something that some believe and some won't. But still most of them get frighten to some extend, when they watch terrific horror films. Perhaps it is due to the terrific sounds or special effects that imposes ones mind. But there is a specific science that has the ability to explain the concepts of the spirits or ghosts called Adhyathma (A study centered around the soul)in the Ancient Indian script. According to the teachings of the ancient scripture Bhagavad Gita, the brain (and the body in general) is only a mechanical device used by the spirit soul (the actual self). It is described that just as a passenger rides in a chariot, in the same way the spirit soul is riding in this vehicle of the body. The scriptures state that one who commits suicide will have to remain as a ghost for the period of time that one's body was supposed to exist. A ghost is nothing but a person with no physical body. According to the sankhya system, our body is made up of two coverings, the sukshma-sharira (subtle body) and the sthula-sharira (gross body). The gross body is made up of the panca-bhutas (earth, water, fire, air and ether), and the subtle body is made up of the mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi) and identification (ahankara). It is the subtle body which accompanies the soul into the next body at the time of death. The gross physical body has a particular duration of existence based on one's prarabdha karma(results of the deeds of his previous incarnation).When one commits suicide, one brings one's physical body to an end prior to it having completed it's allotted time. One's next body is prepared in the akasha (ether), ready to manifest at the end of one's allotted time (the normal death of one's physical body). Thus if one was supposed to live for 100 years, one's next body will be waiting for you after that 100 years. If for some reason one were to commit suicide at the age of 50, then one's next body will not be ready, and one will remain in an ethereal state until the balance 50 years of existence pass. This state of existing as a ghost is a great suffering for the individual, as they lack the senses through which to act. The desires to act remain, as the mind, intelligence and identification of the subtle body are still existing.

Dreams: Winnie-the-pooh and Vision Center Essay

We have prepared this handout of actual essays written by current Harvard students who attended secondary schools in the UK (with names changed for anonymity) in order to provide some guidance to schools and applicants. Because the university admissions processes in the US and the UK are markedly different, we have received requests for some sample essays and tips for writing them and hope they will be helpful. Here is the official description of the personal essay requirement: Please write an essay (250 words minimum) on a topic of your choice or on one of the options listed below. This personal essay helps us become acquainted with you as a person and student, apart from courses, grades, test scores, and other objective data. It will also demonstrate your ability to organize your thoughts and express yourself. 1. Evaluate a significant experience, achievement, risk you have taken, or ethical dilemma you have faced and its impact on you. 2. Discuss some issue of personal, local, national, or international concern and its importance to you. 3. Indicate a person who has had a significant influence on you, and describe that influence. 4. Describe a character in fiction, a historical figure, or a creative work (as in art, music, science, etc.) that has had an influence on you, and explain that influence. 5. A range of academic interests, personal perspectives, and life experiences adds much to the educational mix. Given your personal background, describe an experience that illustrates what you would bring to the diversity in a college community, or an encounter that demonstrated the importance of diversity to you. 6. Topic of your choice. Your essay for a US university might be the same one you would write for the UCAS system, but perhaps not. We are interested in your academic successes and future plans, but also want to understand what makes you tick as a person. What are your hopes, dreams and fears? Our advice is to think of two or three possible topics, write a quick first draft of each essay and then show them to your best friend, mother, teacher or anyone who knows you well. Ask that person if your voice and personality come through in the essays and which one sounds the most like you. Then take that essay and polish it off! As you will see from the following sample essays, these students have written about learning to ride a bike, culture shock at coming to the UK, music, public service, and a favourite book. What will you write about? Sample College Essay #1 I never imagined that by swimming, a Vision Center in India would be built. And I certainly never thought so many people could be cured of blindness there. For the past twelve years of my life, my passion has been competitive swimming. Mile after mile I train almost every single day in the hope of becoming that much faster, that much more powerful in the water, that much closer to my goals. (My classmates tell me I am better adapted to live in the water than on land!) I have reached more athletic goals than I ever imagined when I first splashed into the water as a timid six-year old. I have won several Texas state titles, been ranked nationally in both the US and the UK, set numerous International Schools Tournament records, and captained both my school and club swim teams. This past year, I decided to combine my love of swimming with a fundraising target. My older brother worked as an intern on the Flying Eye Hospital run by the international sight-saving ch arity ORBIS. I was horrified by his description of the magnitude of curable, but untreated eye diseases. I knew I had to take action. To help those who have or will lose their sight for no fault of their own, my triplet siblings and I organized, planned, publicized, and successfully led a community-wide Swim-a-thon that raised funds for ORBIS. The goal of our event was not only to raise funds for this very worthwhile cause, but more importantly, to raise awareness about avoidable blindness. Our theme â€Å"Every minute a child goes blind†, caught the attention of the community. The word spread. People were surprised to know that we have the medical capability to cure millions of people with a simple surgery or eye droplets, yet hundreds of people lose their sight every day. As a two-year class vice president and student member of the Athletic Advisory Board, I was able to gain permission from the Head of School to plan the event. I convinced the Athletic Director to set aside pool time and recruited life guards. In order to garner support, I placed ads in the school newspaper, hung posters throughout my school, and persuaded my coach to replace an afternoon workout with the Swim-a-thon. After weeks of preparation, swim mates, school faculty, and parents logged thousands of laps. It was an immensely successful day. Enough money was collected to build a Vision Center in India, with surgical equipment, medicines, and training materials. The new Vision Center will not only treat thousands of patients, but will create a permanent site to train doctors and other medical personnel. As Treasurer of my school’s chapter of the National Honor Society, I plan to allocate charity funds this year to ORBIS for the continuing operational costs of the Vision Center. Every minute a child goes blind. Thirty-seven million people in the world are blind. Remarkably, an overwhelming 28 million of them do not need to be. When I think about the Vision Center we funded, I am overwhelmed with a sense of accomplishment and pride. Even though I will never meet the many people who will receive medical treatment there, the satisfaction of knowing that I have helped change the lives of thousands of people is astonishing. More meaningful than any swim race or trophy, we have brought hope where there was darkness. Sample College Essay #2 If we speak the same language, then why don’t I understand you? Why are the clothes you wear so different and the expressions you say so unclear to me? It was my first day in England and a â€Å"Bank Holiday† at that. With only one sport on television, I was determined to watch and study a game I had no idea how to play. I didn’t know what an â€Å"over† was, or even the job of the bowler. I didn’t know what a â€Å"wicket† was, or how many a team needed to win. But I didn’t care. I was living across the pond now, and if I was going to fit into my new surroundings, understanding the rules of cricket seemed like a fine starting point. I persevered, and eventually I was explaining the now familiar game of cricket to my family; baseball analogies helped a great deal. I was proud of myself. I had conquered the English culture. Maybe England wasn’t so bad after all. I soon realized how naive these thoughts were. Cricket was just the beginning. A whole world of different traditions and customs was thrown in front of me. July Fourth was exchanged for Guy Fawkes Day and the â€Å"the celebration with the turkey† was erased from the calendar. Where would I fit in? Rugby and Premier League Football dominated the sports channels. Where was my beloved ESPN? Why is the television show, Little Britain, so hysterical? The movie theatres were smaller than a British mini cooper, and the Super Bowl kicked off at four a.m. The warmth of the Texan sun was replaced by the rainy days of Wimbledon. I was surprised to see that some parts of life abroad were better. Friends became mates. The frenetic pace of Piccadilly Circus and the splendour of St. Paul’s Cathedral are unsurpassed. Roundabouts make the traffic run smoothly. I like the sound of â€Å"Cheers†. Over sixty different nationalities and over thirty languages are represented at the International School I attend. The culture shock was overwhelming. But I refused to yield. I was going to start by mixing into the English culture. I reported on local and national events as an Editor of the school newspaper. In addition I met swimmers from all over the U.K. through my British swim team, all with different backgrounds and lifestyles from mine. The cultures that engulfed me when I first came to England are part of me now. London is at my disposal. The people, the pubs, the expressions, and the entertainment are all a part of what makes living in England a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Yes, I have missed several Thanksgiving feasts and numerous Astros games, but I have come to understand and enjoy a completely new place. I wouldn’t change any of my experiences. Living in Europe has broadened my perspective on life and opened my eyes to so may wonderful people and ideas. People have similar goals wherever they come from. I’m glad I know that there is no single right way to achieve them. Sample College Essay #3 I wake up and there is a rhythm in my head: it’s hazy. I climb into the shower and the water tapping on my scalp reminds me. As I sit on the bus to go to school, I get strange looks from passengers as I tap the rhythm onto my knees, but it’s not yet fully formed. Throughout the school day, I feel it evolve and develop until I inevitably sit down at my drums and play. From my brain via my heart it enters my muscles; they transfer it to the sticks which relay it to the drum. Eventually, the air gets my gift and the rhythm returns through my ears. Even after the sounds are gone, the rhythm is not. Until I go to bed, a day’s repetition keeps it rebounding inside my cranium, in my own private concert hall. This is the journey of my daily rhythm. I wake up and there is a rhythm in my head: it’s not straight for this rhythm swings. At 6:00 am in Germany I get on a coach and as the wheels rotate beneath me I get closer. My coach has thirty five other people in it, each one is carried forward in their own sense of time, but in less than an hour they must all merge; seven hundred people will not accept a big band not keeping the pulse. Butterflies are roused in my gut and nerves take over. I’ve never played a solo in front of so many people yet somehow my fear must be quelled. My imagination, my sticks and my drum-set have to communicate my inner rhythm; the audience must be able to feel it or else I have failed. Rhythm is the barrier to embarrassment. As the opening to â€Å"Sing, Sing, Sing† begins to take shape, all my trust is placed in the pattern I have within me transporting me safely to the end. If this vessel sank, I too would go with it. A standing ovation confirmed that this time, the barrier held strong. I wake up and there is a rhythm in my head: but it is quiet. In fact, no-one hears it; it makes no noise and never will. Between the hours of 0845 and 1545 I have 4 beats: each one signaling another unit of learning. This phrase is repeated 5 days a week for 40 weeks a year and the chorus goes on 6 more times. My song is my school, and in it I am caught up in its inner rhythms that I cannot control – I must give in to them. The melodies that are assigned to these rhythms are made up of Virgil, esters and numbers that don’t exist. From these, cadences form that give me a chordal progression through education. Each part of my song has been given a name; there are no verses, no choruses but consecutive Key Stages. The rhythm indicates when I should make the transition: there is a series of fills, but they are not called fills. They call them exams and as the stages progress, the fills get more intense. In fact, they get more frequent and at the end of my school career, I look forward to a year where exams punctuate my calendar. In January, I will have moved to the dominant, only to complete the progression in June when I descend and finish on the tonic: a perfect cadence. I wake up and there is rhythm: the rhythm is life. The cycle of night and day and the constant pulsing in my chest are rhythms, and as the Earth revolves around our local star it is in time with the universe. I think in meter: a man crosses the street and his steps divide the distance between one curb and the next – they provide a beat in the asphalt bar, or at least that is how I picture it. If animals could not use the rhythm of the seasons, then they would surely die. Life is a rhythm and all that it contains is in time. When the rhythm ceases to exist, so will I. Sample College Essay #4 Magicians are not truly magical, though they like others to think they are. So what inspires this â€Å"deception†? Some think it is the money and others, the glamour of performing on stage and mystifying the audience. But for me it has always been a question of identity. Magic has helped me develop my confidence and communication skills so when the time comes to stand up and address a crowd, such as the school debate or a Model United Nations conference, it is no effort at all. However, I can say that one unusual circumstance in my life has given me a new sense of direction for my magic. At first, I thought magic was mere entertainment, but Horace, a man from the local Spastics Center diagnosed with autism in his late twenties, changed my perspective on my art. So often when we think of the disabled, we imagine children, and we sympathize with them. With Horace, I was faced with a situation largely unknown to the general public’s experience: an unemotional adult who ra rely spoke to or acknowledged others around him. When I tried to engage him, he mumbled to me uninterested and somewhat detached. But then when I produced my deck of cards, when through several routines and then showed him how he, too, could create â€Å"miracles†, he smiled and laughed. This reaction highlighted the most rewarding aspect of magic because he accepted me into his world and responded to me. The Center’s staff even commented, â€Å"We have never seen Horace behaving in such an emotional way!† For the first time, Horace had been given hope that he too could, perhaps, achieve and live a meaningful life. The magic had broken a myth of futility and dispelled it forever. I saw that magic could provide a driving force for pursuing change, and this realization overwhelmed me. I had witnessed something so unusual that the force of it took my breath away. The essence of magic is establishing a connection between the audience and the performer. With Horace, the ordinary had become the extraordinary, and for a moment, we connected in a state called â€Å"Astonishment†. This experience brings about a revisit to our most basic form, unaltered by culture or society. Indeed, that instant is so special because as adults, we are all too rarely astonished, and this moment returns us to our days as children when we were clueless and laughed at everything. This unusual encounter showed me that in this moment of astonishment, magic has the power to inspire. Since the encounter with Horace I have founded a society that brings all the magicians at my school together to perform magic for the elderly and the less fortunate in the nearby community. If I can show them, for instance, how to produce onepound coins from thin air, then contrary to what they have been told, perhaps they can challenge their â€Å"limits†. Then, dare I say that my passion for magic would be enhanced by a touch of true magic, generated perhaps from a truly unusual moment of astonishment. Sample College Essay #5 The ball ricocheted off the wall and disappeared into the black hole under my bed. It had been some years since the Hoover had been granted visiting rights and a heavy cloud of fluff covered every inch of the 4’ x 6’3† rectangle. Slightly nervous of what I might find, I ventured in slowly with an outstretched hand. The ball was nowhere to be found but I felt a small box-shaped object. I dragged it out, dusted it off and there looking somewhat the worse for wear, was my old leather book trunk. As I eased open the lid, the familiar smell (slightly musty with time) transported me immediately back ten years. Inside, in pride of place on top, staring boldly back at me, was my old friend Winnie the Pooh. The familiar, faded yellow face, the shrunken red tshirt with tummy protruding proudly from beneath, an empty honey pot and by his side, as ever, was Piglet. It is to Winnie the Pooh that I owe my greatest debt. It was this funny bear of little brain and large appetite who first sparked my interest in the literary world. He taught me about friendships and Woozles and how to make the best Heffalump traps. Many a happy hour was spent with Pooh and his friends facing adversity with his ever optimistic demeanour. Although I haven’t seen this treasured copy for many a year, I must admit to a weekly dose of life in a Hundred Acre Wood. Each week I share my passion for reading with Class 2A at the local village primary school. We start off with one of Pooh’s adventures – richly embellished with different voices that perhaps A.A. Milne may not have intended but, nevertheless, seem to get the seal of approval from my six-year-old audiences. After this we get down to the nitty gritty – the business of learning to read – or as I like to call it â€Å"Discovering How to Lose Yourself†. I go round the class taking turns to listen to them read. Although the range of their abilities is surprisingly large they all make a huge effort and really enjoy themselves. Progress is made and more and more pupils get lost each week. All too soon it is time to go. I say my goodbyes and rush back to school for my next lesson. I hum a little happiness tune and as I round the corner into the school a large thundercloud looms above. In my head a very Pooh-like voice says â€Å"Tut, tut, looks like rain!†. Sample College Essay #6 Nothing of much significance ever happens on the Isle of Wight. And to those of you for whom island travels only involved the palm trees and pink sand variety, let me enlighten you. The Isle of Wight is a small, chalky lump that broke off the south coast of England and came to a halt one mile out. It is caught in a rather charming time warp – circa. 1955. No palm tree could ever survive the freezing easterly winds that blast through from Siberia every winter and the only pink sand would be the result of a small child falling over a sandcastle on the way back from the Mr. Whippy ice cream van. It has sand and it has trees but of the altogether more hardy type. The sand is yellow and coarse, the trees are sturdy and solid with waxy leaves to withstand the salty air. The people are sturdy and solid too with an accent inherited from their pirate ancestors that sets them apart from those on the mainland. Life ambles along and nobody rushes. Pity anyone caught in a queue at the butchers behind Mrs. Singleton as she recounts, far too vividly, details of her latest health scare. Don’t get me wrong, it has its virtues – the Victorian pier pointing like a lace gloved finger out to sea and the promenade with shops selling pink and white sticks of rock with â€Å"Isle of Wight† running through it (how do they do that?), â€Å"Kiss me Quick† sunhats and inflatable boats. And on the corner of the High Street, the Cod Father fish and chip shop with a sign in the window saying â€Å"We batter anything!† It was on this sleepy little island that I, as a small boy, spent most of my summers. Summers that, due to the temperature, would be called autumn anywhere else – but nothing a long wetsuit and hat couldn’t disguise. One day in early July, arriving back from another bracing trip to the beach, I saw my mother and sister sitting side by side on the grassy bank overlooking the lawn. Nex t to them was a large bag of sweets and a bicycle. My mother announced that today was the day she was going to teach me how to ride a bike. There had been many attempts before but today I could tell she meant business. A succession of sweets was laid out at regular intervals along the lawn marking the route I was to take. Each time I made it to that point without falling off I got the sweet. Knowing that I really didn’t have any choice, I climbed awkwardly onto the enormous bike. Mother steadied me with one hand and then with a shove I was hurtling down the bank and onto the lawn. A blur of screaming and clapping preceded the first of many spectacular falls and my shins took on the blue hue of an uncooked lobster with blobs of grease from the chain splattered amongst the bumps. My sister, younger than me and already a whiz on her pink Barbie bike, gave patronizing advice trying to sound encouraging but, I suspect, rather enjoying the moment. An hour and a half later, battered and bruised with tears streaking through the mud on my face, I climbed onto the beast one more time. I steadied myself, focused on the hedge at the other end of the lawn (where the biggest chocolate bar lay) and with an almighty push I launched myself forward peddling with fury. Before I knew what had happened, there was a rush of green as I landed headfirst into the hedge. The bike, free of its incompetent rider, did an elegant ark to the left before coming to a halt. As I cycle confidently (but still can’t do the no hands thing) to the boathouse every day, I think of the words of Claude Pepper who said, â€Å"Life is like riding a bicycle. You don’t fall off unless you plan to stop peddling.† I won’t stop peddling. – and am proud to announce that on the 3rd July 1998 something of great significance did, at last, happen on the Isle of Wight.

The Island of Bohol: Heaven on Earth

Bohol is an island in the tropical country of the Philippines which is located in Southeast Asia. A couple of years back, I traveled to Bohol to get acquainted with Asia. The moment I stepped out of the airport, I smelled something different. The scent of tropical paradise overpowered my senses. It's a mix of flavors of coconut trees, sweet fruits and the usual body-scented steam that just makes you want to relax and unwind. More so, the sizzling ray of the sun, the hypnotic sound of the sea and warm smile of the natives of Bohol greeted me as I entered nature's hidden treasure.My adventure began as I traversed the oval-shaped island from the luscious mountainous region going towards the pristine coastal area. I started with the infamous Chocolate hills. It's a large formation of rich brown-colored cone-shaped hills. These cute hills looked like gigantic Hershey's kisses strategically placed in a picturesque landscape. After my first immersion with Bohol's local beauty, I said to mys elf that there's no way that there could be another place that can beat the exquisiteness of Chocolate hills.This was a fact until I saw the long white sandy beaches of Panglao island. It literally took my breath away. It was simply idyllic. Endless columns of coconut trees outlined the beach front. The white sand is so friendly to the naked foot because of it is fine as a salt and soft as milk texture that made me want to cover my whole body with it. The natural charm of the place did not stopt here,it went beyond to the extensive crystal blue water of the sea. The undulating movements of the waves took me to a place that highlighted my contentment and happiness.

The Importance of Listening Obediance Essays

The Importance of Listening Obediance Essays The Importance of Listening Obediance Essay The Importance of Listening Obediance Essay The Importance of Following Directions Obedience and following directions exactly are important skills that all individuals need in their lives . There are many instances wherein the ability to follow specific orders is needed . There are many more instances wherein the inability to do so could result in fatal errors and irrevocable harm . These dire consequences could not only affect the individual who could not follow directions closely but could also affect the one giving the directions and also other individuals relying on the results of the given directions . This essay aims to show the importance of following directions through an analysis of several real-life situations . It is widely recognized that following instructions is essential in the educational system . Even in online courses , classes taken over the internet , reading the instructions for a given module and following it step by step prove to be essential requirements . Being able to follow instructions when it comes to classes and school-type environments insures that the student will be able to achieve a higher grade . Knowing how to understand and execute teacher ‘s or instructor ‘s directions properly assures the student that he or she will be able to provide outputs that are in accordance with the standards and quality the teacher or instructor has in mind . Thus grades can be a reflection of how well a student has followed instructions (Nicoletta , n . d . Not following teacher ‘s directions can even result in point deductions in the work of some students . Following directions can also be essential in the family setting . Parents have to be able to teach their children how to follow directions because it will prove essential to their later success in life . In the family , not being able to follow directions can lead to anger and bad family relationships . Although parents are supposed to guide their children in their growth , children should also be able to obey their parents as a means of respect and acknowledgement that it will be for their own good . When children , therefore , are not able to follow directions , they are skipping out on an opportunity to learn something . Not following instructions also jeopardizes the goodwill within the family and may create unnecessary tension (Steelsmith , 2004 . In an individual ‘s career , following directions also proves to be vital . Not following the exact instructions in application forms may result in an individual not being hired for the job such as when contact information was not properly filled out . Not filling out reports roperly may result in not receiving the compensation for that assignment . Having a successful career requires discipline and care . This includes being able to take the time to know what is required of and following those instructions properly (Star Search Casting , 2002 . An individual not following the boss ‘ orders correctly could well end up on the receiving end of a harsh reprimand or even of a termination notice . Following directions are mor e crucial in certain career paths such as when one decides to join the military . Not†¦

Albert Bandura Essays

Albert Bandura Essays Albert Bandura Paper Albert Bandura Paper Writing Assignment #1 Bandura, Ross, Ross (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models In 1961, Bandura, D. Ross, and S. Ross conducted an experiment on 72 pre-school children to examine and explore the â€Å"Social Learning† theory. The Social Learning theory suggests that human behavior is observationally learned through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed. They predicted that subjects Method: Design: The participants were chosen by opportunity sampling from Stanford University Nursery School. Participants consisted of 36 boys and 36 girls, and two adults, a male and a female, both being a role model. The participants were divided into eight experimental groups of six subjects each and a control group consisting of 24 children. Half of the experimental participants viewed aggressive models, while the other half were shown nonaggressive models. These groups were then further divided into male and female subjects, and half of the children in the aggressive and non-aggressive groups observed same-sexed models, while the other half observed opposite sex models. The control group was not exposed to any adult models The subjects were assessed on four five-point rating scales by the experimenter and a school teacher. These assessments measured the extent to which the children demonstrated verbal aggression, physical aggression, aggression toward intimate objects, and aggressive inhibition. Procedure: Subjects were individually brought to the experimental room and were escorted to one corner of the room, which was their play area. After seating the child at a small table, the experimenter explained how subjects could construct and design pictures with potato prints and picture stickers. The model on the other hand was brought to the opposite corner of the room which consisted of a small chair, table, mallet, tinker toy set, and a 5-foot inflated Bobo doll. The experimenter explained to the model that the materials provided was for him/her to play with. With participants in the aggressive condition, the model assembled the tinker toys and portrayed acts of aggression towards the Bobo doll; the model continuously punched the Bobo doll, used a mallet to hit the Bobo doll’s head, and tossed it up the air and kicked it. Furthermore, the model interspersed with verbally aggressive comments such as, â€Å"Kick him†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"Throw him in the air. † Conversely, with subjects in the non-aggressive condition, the model assembled the tinker toys in a silent passive manner, and completely disregarding the Bobo doll. Moreover, the model made non-aggressive comments such as, â€Å"He sure is a tough fella,† and â€Å"He keeps coming back for more. † After 10 minutes, the experimenter informed the subject that he would now be brought to another game room. The subjects were then taken into another room filled with interesting toys, some of an aggressive type such as, a 3-foot Bobo doll, a mallet and a peg board, and some nonaggressive such as, a tea set, crayons, and coloring paper, a ball, and plastic farm animals. The subjects were observed through a one-way mirror, and behaviors such as, physical aggression, verbal aggression, and the number of times the mallet was used to strike the Bobo doll was assessed. Results: Confounds within study: There are minimal confounding variables within the experiment as Bandura, Ross, and Ross used a laboratory experiment method to conduct their esearch. The utilization of a laboratory experiment method allowed the experimenters to standardize conditions for all the subjects and acquire greater control of extraneous variables, which therefore led to a stronger internal validity. Internal validity is the degree to which an observed effect is due to the experimental manipulation rather than other fact ors such as extraneous variables. Some possible confounding variables were avoided and controlled. Firstly, the individual differences were controlled by ensuring subjects were rated for aggression prior to the study. This eliminates a possible extraneous factor – individual differences in aggression. Secondly, the subjects within the control and experimental groups were matched for aggressiveness to ensure equal compositions of the groups. As a result, the data could not be affected by pre-existing levels of aggression; therefore, causal relationships can be made. Furthermore, all the subjects were slightly frustrated before illustrating aggressive behavior. The subjects were allowed to play with the attractive toys for a few minutes until they were told by the experimenter that the toys were for other the other children. Hence, the increase in their emotional stimulation was approximately equal, before they were given an opportunity to be aggressive. Lastly, the experimenter rated the aggressive levels of the participants with a nursery school teacher that was well acquainted with children. This decreased the chances of subjectivity. Although most of the extraneous and confounding variables were taken into consideration, there are some confounding variables that may have skewed the results. Since there is high control in a laboratory experiment, there is the possibility of this leading to a contrived situation, and, a loss of real-life validity. As a result, the issue of demand characteristic may have occurred. A demand characteristic is when participants are aware of the experimenter’s expectation and how they are predicted to behave. Hence, participants would alter their behavior to fit the experimenter’s expectation, which would result in unrepresentative and invalid findings. The children might have been aware of what was expected of them; one of the participants said â€Å"Look Mummy, there’s the doll we have to hit† Noble (1975). Importance of the study to the field: Albert Bandura’s success in his experiment has allowed him to prove and verify the Social Learning theory. The Social Learning theory or observational learning is now widely accepted as a useful theory in the field of psychology; it can be used to shape desired and acceptable behaviors and eliminate unwanted attitudes. Some complex behaviors such as, language, would probably never be learnt and developed unless children were exposed to people who modeled them. Observational learning enables children to garner many responses and behaviors in a large variety of settings where the models are performing their daily activities and routines. Some examples of observational learning would be observing parents read and write, parent’s attitude and response toward a certain scenario, moral behavior, and ethical decisions. Furthermore, Bandura has also developed a therapy called ‘’modeling therapy,† which is derived from observational learning. The modeling therapy highlights the importance of learning through observation of role models, and learning about rewards and punishment that follow behavior. The therapy has been proven and is used to eradicate unwanted behaviors, phobias, and anxiety disorders. Bandura’s Social learning Theory is also applied for educational purposes. Educators have learned that observational learning is an effective teaching tool. Observational learning processes â€Å"greatly influence children’s coping with conflict, frustration, academic stressors, and failure† (Zimmerman Schunk, 2003, p. 442). With knowledge of observational learning, they are able to be conscious and aware of their actions, being discreet and certain that they are portraying a morally correct behavior to their students. Traditional behaviorists believed that all organisms learned in the same way; all behavior is learned through the environment, and this was explained through operant and classical conditioning. In short, the learning perspective was limited to these techniques. The discovery and verification of the Social Learning theory has contributed towards the overall shift of the learning perspective to incorporate cognitive and social processes; it demonstrates that learning was not simply based on a set of stimulus-response associations. Furthermore, the social learning theory reaches into the cognitive perspective’s realm, allowing development for more effective techniques. The theory can be seen as a bridge between the learning perspective and the cognitive perspective, as it incorporates attention and memory.

Definition and Examples of Conditional Clauses

Definition and Examples of Conditional Clauses In English grammar, a conditional clause is a type of adverbial clause that states a hypothesis or condition, real (factual) or imagined (counterfactual). A sentence containing one or more conditional clauses and a main clause (which expresses the result of the condition) is called a conditional sentence  (also known as a conditional construction). A conditional clause is most often introduced by the subordinating conjunction if. Other conditional subordinators include unless, even if, provided that,  on condition that, as long as, and  in the case of. (Note that unless functions as a negative subordinator.) Conditional clauses tend to come at the beginning of complex sentences, but (like other adverbial clauses) they may also come at the end.   Examples and Observations If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. (Anne Bradstreet, Meditations Divine and Moral)Romans park their cars the way I would park if I had just spilled a beaker of hydrochloric acid on my lap. (Bill Bryson,  Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe. William Morrow, 1992)Even if it snows, even if there is a tornado, nothing will put off this expedition. (J.F. Powers, Death of a Favorite, 1951)After that first taste of the sandal in the dining room, I foolishly believed I would be safe as long as I stayed away from the table. (Adrienne Kress,  Alex  . Weinstein Books, 2007)and  the Ironic GentlemanIf you can keep your head when all about youAre losing theirs and blaming it on you,If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you,But make allowance for their doubting too;If you can wait and not be tired by waiting,Or being lied about, dont deal in lies,Or being hated, dont give wa y to hating,And yet dont look too good, nor talk too wise...(The first stanza of Rudyard Kiplings If- , 1895) What Are 'Conditions'? Conditions deal with imagined situations: some are possible, some are unlikely, some are impossible. The speaker/writer imagines that something can or cannot happen or have happened, and then compares that situation with possible consequences or outcomes, or offers further logical conclusions about the situation. (R. Carter,  Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge University Press, 2006) Stylistic Advice: Positioning Conditional Clauses Conditional clauses have traditionally been placed at the beginning of a sentence, but you should feel free to place a conditional clause elsewhere if doing so would make the provision easier to read. The longer the conditional clause, the more likely it is that the provision would be more readable with the matrix clause rather than the conditional clause at the front of the sentence. If both the conditional clause and the matrix clause contain more than one element, you would likely be better off expressing them as two sentences. (Kenneth A. Adams,  A Manual of Style for Contract Drafting. American Bar Association, 2004) Types of Conditional Clauses There are six main types of conditional sentence: For example, the equilibrium between liquid and vapor is upset if the temperature is increased.(General rule, or law of nature: it always happens.)If you start thinking about this game, it will drive you crazy.(Open future condition: it may or may not happen.)But if you really wanted to be on Malibu Beach, youd be there.(Unlikely future condition: it probably wont happen.)If I were you, I would go to the conference center itself and ask to see someone in security.(Impossible future condition: it could never happen.)I would have resigned if they had made the decision themselves, she said.(Impossible past condition: it didnt happen.)If he had been working for three days and three nights then it was in the suit he was wearing now.(Unknown past condition: we dont know the facts.) (John Seely,  Grammar for Teachers. Oxpecker, 2007)

Cause and Effects of Obestity In America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cause and Effects of Obestity In America - Essay Example There are increased risk in medical conditions when a person is obese than when they are healthy. Inactivity and food that people consume are the main cause of obesity. The disease is common in all American races and cultures. Over a period, exercise among Americans has reduced tremendously. Children play video games instead of the traditional games while other individuals use cars instead of walking (National Institute of Health). This lack of exercise leads to an increase in fat deposition in the body over time that causes the individuals to be obese. The foods that Americans consume lead to the high rise of obesity. Most families experience financial pressures and have less time to prepare them hence consume fast food that are having high-fat content and calories. Other causes may also be genetics, overeating and slow metabolism (Stern & Alexandra 19). Being obese has both psychological and health effect on an individual. In the health matters, the scientist has evidence that obesity increases the risk of certain diseases such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, heart disease, hypertension and stroke (Weiting 545). Hence, the condition leads to reduced life expectancy among obese individuals. Obesity has a psychological effect on affected individual especially children that may continue to their adult life. Most of the obese individuals are depressed, have low self-esteem and easily engage in drug abuse. These psychological effects are common among obese kids who find themselves left out in activities with other kids (Freedman

Organizational Behavior by Strayer University Term Paper

Organizational Behavior by Strayer University - Term Paper Example Allstate Company’s efforts in goal-setting program are promising. Goal setting is characterized by a set of distinct conditions that help in evaluating the effectiveness of the goal-setting program. The employees should be in a position to attain the set goals of the company. Necessary knowledge and skills apply in this process, thereby measuring just how much the program is set to work out in favor of the company. In the context of this company, the idea of this condition is down pack. Current job skills and expertise in the company is highly evaluated in the present times in relation to the goals, mission and objectives of the company. Advancement program for employee skills and expertise is operational, training of workers put in place as well as mentoring services. Creative and critical skill development is therefore at the disposal of workers, and opportunities for advancement are therefore created. As much as the condition here is hectic to functionalize, it clarifies th e firm’s goals and initiates efficiency in the operations of the company (Andreas, 1998). Difficult goals call for maximum attention and analysis over time. This is the seconds step towards achieving functional goal-setting procedures. The employees must be upfront at all times in regard to the attainment of these difficult goals. Employees focus on their work has been enhanced in this company by the fact there is a childcare unit in the company. The childcare units are favorable to the users since they offer care discounts for the parents. Over and above this fact, Allstate use other means to keep the workers focused to the goals of the firm. These means are: offering dry cleaning services as well as oil-change services. There is therefore little or no time wasted by the employees during work hours when they need the aforementioned services. Day breaks allow the parents to see their children without wasting so much time. They can therefore work as required by the company (He llriegel & Slocum, 2011). Goal achievement progress need to be monitored at each point in time, and necessary feedback toward such progress reported from time to time. Allstate Company employs Diversity Index twice a year in effectuating this condition in its goal-setting program. Monitoring questions are set up every time a survey for the index is set up. The idea here is to assess whether the company indiscriminately provides quality services to all its customers in the market model. Another aspect highlighted by the index is the working environment that prevails in the company. This is meant to assess the comfort ability of the employees at the work place. The diversity and dynamism of the operation ability in the company determines the rationale of efficient goal setting program. The survey is fundamental to the overall performance of the company since it defines the employer-employee relationship in the working environment (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2011). Another condition necessar y to the goal setting program of the company is the need to break down complex goals into sub-goals. This is tailored towards mobilizing the employees to want to reach to the higher goals. However, in order to achieve the higher goals, all the sub-goals must be achieved. The employees will therefore want to achieve the sub-goals as much as possible in order to reach to the big goals. There are no identified sub-goals for the Allstate Company, but it is noticeably important that the company has established many goal-setting

Impact of information technology on Hotel Business Essay

Impact of information technology on Hotel Business - Essay Example Hence, these changing information technology trends in hospitality industry force all economical hospitality firms to practically take advantage of any innovative technology that can offer their business considerable perfection in forms of greater customer satisfaction and employee efficiency. There are numerous researches have been conducted to determine the impact of information technology on hospitality industry. In this scenario, a research that was carried out in Australia by (Lee et al., 2003) declared that the information technology has significant influences over the capability of hospitality firms in order to facilitate their workers, increase efficiencies, enhance service quality, gain competitive edge, effectively build and maintain associations with customers, and increase overall business productivity (Karadag & Dumanoglu, 2009; Lee et al., 2003; Galen et al., 2003). This paper discusses the potential impacts of information technology on hospitality industry. In this sce nario, this paper will discuss the information technologies that are being used by the hospitality industry to manage their business operations.... Many researches show that information technology has become a key driver of growth for the hospitality industry in the past few years. In addition, up-to-date tools and software applications for carrying out tasks such as flawless communication and distribution of operational information, synchronized inventory access, and collection of important performance data, have changed the structure of hotel and restaurant business. As well, one of the biggest advantages of this process has been the improved customer experience and satisfaction, leading to higher devotion. In this way, information technology has augmented earnings for hospitality industry, and also helped them in saving expenditures on a long-standing basis by minimizing the human resource and enhancing the quality of service and business performance (Pandey, 2010). Historically, the business processes of hospitality firms have been managed using cards, manually, or paperwork at the front desk in order to keep up a correspond ence with old and existing customers. In this scenario, hoteliers were mainly at the compassion of the needs of guests to get there, and on their own efforts and staff to be there for possible surges or extended deficiencies of tenancy. Without using information technology supported methods hospitality industry was facing serious problems. In this scenario, (Nikolis, 2008) discuss some of the important areas of the hospitality industry which has been improved by the information technology. According to (Nikolis, 2008), the basic reason that information technology has turned out to be significant is its usefulness for the billing. In view of the fact that traditional paper-based and manual data entry was slow, time-consuming and ineffective, and

Strategic Financial Concerns for a Typical International Investment Essay

Strategic Financial Concerns for a Typical International Investment Project - Essay Example International projects quintessentially engross a broader array of issues than domestic projects and efficaciously, the extrinsic movement from one's own business authority exclaims many unknowns. The factors that influence the investment decisions of the owner with international capital amenities can appear to be a bit intricate and may differ considerably from plan to plan. According to Walewski and Gibson, the accomplishment of a particular project can depend upon a comprehension of the stakes related to such projects. International projects with meticulous reference to investment which are not able to meet factors like possibilities, resources, and schedule often accrue in an array of influences with crucial financial, social, and political consequences (Walewski and Gibson, 2003). Most of the industry psychoanalysts like Hann and Diekmann construe to the fact that the globalization of international investment market facilitates with tremendous opportunities for business individuals to expand in to new-fangled foreign markets (Hann and Diekmann, 2002). Economic and financial stakes influence the selection of project delivery and documents where currency vacillation impersonates a vital role in resolving the segment of the project which can be contracted for represented overseas. According to Kumar et. al, factors like policy corruption is a critical factor in determining the currency crises (Kumar et. al, 1999). Innumerable risks and risk-associated procedures, when assessed by Dias and Ionnou, related to the fact that there are generally two kinds of risk: 1. Pure risk when there is likelihood for financial thrashing and no likelihood for financial gain 2. Tentative risk which is involved with the likelihood of both gains and thrashings (Dias and Ionnou, 1995). Many contracted projects are featured by the incongruity between the contracted date and the payment date (Mehrez and Regev, 1983). It is commonly viewed that such a situation is largely engrossed with ambiguities regarding the cost payments, both innate for the project and the investor who has to ensure sufficient funds for the payment time. However, it can be presumed that the decision maker is in possession of an assortment with both liquid as well as non-liquid assets, and it is exorbitantly pricey to bring into use the non-liquid assets in order to finance the projects. Moreover, the liquid assets or the budget are adequate to the project and can be somewhat deferred for the project, thereby, springing a low return, and partly be utilized for an optional long series of Financial Plan with high

Assignment2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Assignment2 - Essay Example It notes various legal backgrounds that recognize the link between culture and natural resources, in addition to citing the role they can play in managing the river as well as the impacts it may have on their lifestyle. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Introduction 4 Discussion 5 Background 5 Ownership concepts surrounding the Waikato river saga 5 Maori’s right to resources 9 Conclusion 10 Introduction The Maori community feels their interest is not catered for in the deal involving Waikato River which they feel they have ownership and guardianship rights to, based on the Treaty of Waitangi claims. This claim has been elicited by the signing of deal between the Crown and Waikato-Tanui. This paper therefore explores the case of struggles surrounding of the Waikato River which lies at the center of tribal identity and the troubles surrounding its ownership and guardianship rights. Through analysis of the competing discourses, the emerging tensions and interpretation issues are discu ssed in depth and on their basis, a conclusion derived. Waikato River is known as being the longest River in New Zealand. It is believed to officially start at Nukuhau close to Taupo Township and through its course it is served by various streams and smaller tributaries (Mataira, 1983). The river runs in the North West direction and goes via several forests and rural settings. Based on the activities surrounding the places it passes, it is currently affected fertilizers originating from farmlands, wastewater from industries and urban settings including those from the turbines at the electro power stations. In general, Waikato River is a vital resource to the communities and organizations surrounding and hence its usage impacts on a broad population. Logically, any issues affecting it must therefore be subject to reaction from those affected. Discussion Background The ownership concept in relation to Waikato River is one which brings together people from different backgrounds and que stions their understanding of both leadership and authority in context of natural resources found within their localities. The level of emotions elicited in the quest to claim of ownership of the river cannot be best described than by the words of ‘Iwi,’ the principal negotiator for Waitangi Treaty who asserted that, â€Å"We don’t need a bloody court document to tell us we own the river, we know we do (Field notes, 2000).† It’s one that no doubt puts to battle, beliefs of a society and the Crown. This is what might be termed as a populist statement in the face of crisis. Nonetheless, it does eliminate the possibility of the communities claim for ownership being true. The concept of ownership as expressed by tribal leaders basically centered on the interests of the community. Ownership concepts surrounding the Waikato river saga Virtually each and every society has its concepts which are considered kin to the western ownership theory. Nonetheless, w hat one culture considers ownership is not the same as what another culture would consider as ownership. In essence, ownership concept differs from one sphere to another. According to Stokes (1994) the ownership of Waikato River within context of land claim by the locals was not a claim for exclusive right of ownership of the River but rather they primarily wanted to participate to the river’s management, within precincts of the Maori values. This view is entrenched in the words of

Knowledge Management as an Important Part in the Global Economy Essay

Knowledge Management as an Important Part in the Global Economy - Essay Example This will be followed by the current practices that are being used by employers to attract the best candidates to their firm in the first place, which will be supplemented by examples from different organizations on how they monitor employee satisfaction, assess the required parameters and implement steps to motivate and retain the employees. In the process of  determining  the means to attract employees, the specific role of the HRM departments in different companies will be identified, in ascertaining what successful measures these departments (who is they? make sure your pronoun references are clear)  implemented and how these have contributed to competitive advantage. The need and parameters that are essential for determining the characteristics pertaining to employees’ retention will be identified, i.e, ( i.e.)((is i.e. what you want here? is the meaning clear?)  high turnover of employees is damaging to a firm. The views of experts on what retention measures can be adopted by the HRM department will form the concluding and most important part of the Literature Review.  The operational procedures  determine the employee retention and attrition rates and provide insight into the factors responsible for forcing an employee to seek alternative solutions externally. The HRM departments must take these factors into consideration while devising new plans and strategies to retain employees through the use of confidence-building measures. Journal articles dealing with the subject of retention were retrieved using databases such as ProQuest and Emerald. The search terms that were used include most common words associated with employees and their satisfaction such as  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœemployee satisfaction’, ‘employee retention, ‘employee attrition’  etc. These searches elicited several journal articles that were useful in assessing the importance of retention as well as retention strategies. Additionally, several books on  Human resource management were also consulted in order to derive supporting material that could be used.  

Assignment2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Assignment2 - Essay Example It notes various legal backgrounds that recognize the link between culture and natural resources, in addition to citing the role they can play in managing the river as well as the impacts it may have on their lifestyle. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Introduction 4 Discussion 5 Background 5 Ownership concepts surrounding the Waikato river saga 5 Maori’s right to resources 9 Conclusion 10 Introduction The Maori community feels their interest is not catered for in the deal involving Waikato River which they feel they have ownership and guardianship rights to, based on the Treaty of Waitangi claims. This claim has been elicited by the signing of deal between the Crown and Waikato-Tanui. This paper therefore explores the case of struggles surrounding of the Waikato River which lies at the center of tribal identity and the troubles surrounding its ownership and guardianship rights. Through analysis of the competing discourses, the emerging tensions and interpretation issues are discu ssed in depth and on their basis, a conclusion derived. Waikato River is known as being the longest River in New Zealand. It is believed to officially start at Nukuhau close to Taupo Township and through its course it is served by various streams and smaller tributaries (Mataira, 1983). The river runs in the North West direction and goes via several forests and rural settings. Based on the activities surrounding the places it passes, it is currently affected fertilizers originating from farmlands, wastewater from industries and urban settings including those from the turbines at the electro power stations. In general, Waikato River is a vital resource to the communities and organizations surrounding and hence its usage impacts on a broad population. Logically, any issues affecting it must therefore be subject to reaction from those affected. Discussion Background The ownership concept in relation to Waikato River is one which brings together people from different backgrounds and que stions their understanding of both leadership and authority in context of natural resources found within their localities. The level of emotions elicited in the quest to claim of ownership of the river cannot be best described than by the words of ‘Iwi,’ the principal negotiator for Waitangi Treaty who asserted that, â€Å"We don’t need a bloody court document to tell us we own the river, we know we do (Field notes, 2000).† It’s one that no doubt puts to battle, beliefs of a society and the Crown. This is what might be termed as a populist statement in the face of crisis. Nonetheless, it does eliminate the possibility of the communities claim for ownership being true. The concept of ownership as expressed by tribal leaders basically centered on the interests of the community. Ownership concepts surrounding the Waikato river saga Virtually each and every society has its concepts which are considered kin to the western ownership theory. Nonetheless, w hat one culture considers ownership is not the same as what another culture would consider as ownership. In essence, ownership concept differs from one sphere to another. According to Stokes (1994) the ownership of Waikato River within context of land claim by the locals was not a claim for exclusive right of ownership of the River but rather they primarily wanted to participate to the river’s management, within precincts of the Maori values. This view is entrenched in the words of

The Competitive Advantage of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Competitive Advantage of China - Essay Example The country is ranked very low on considerations of favoritism in government decision making (Rank 43rd), ethical behavior (47th) Intellectual property protection (58th) and auditing and accounting standards (95th). These are artificial constraints and businesses have to be more innovative (manipulative) to succeed. The extent of sophistication of China's competitive advantage was quite poor, the country being ranked at 59th on this factor. Its competitiveness is based more on providing cheap labor and natural resources rather than unique and sophisticated products, technologies and processes. The country's state owned enterprises and the banking sector are still in deep trouble, government intervention to protect these lead to skewed decisions. Levels of financial intermediation are low and the state has had to intervene from time to time to mitigate the adverse effects of a large, non-performing loan portfolio. Added to this is the artificially fixed exchange rate that has remained unchanged at 8.28 Rmb/US$ in the period under review. Floating of the Yuan to see its market driven level shall have major repercussions on the economy as it likely to appreciate considerably making Chinese products more expensive and allow competition from other countries. In terms of consumer sophistication China ranked 42nd; and only 64th in terms of the extent to which its domestic consumers actively de

Taguchi Definition Quality

Taguchi Definition Quality TAGUCHIS DEFINITION OF QUALITY The old traditional definition of quality states quality is conformance to specifications. This definition was expanded by Joseph M. Juran (1904-) in 1974 and then by the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) in 1983. Juran observed that quality is fitness for use. The ASQC defined quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given needs. Taguchi presented another definition of quality. His definition stressed the losses associated with a product.. It must be kept in mind here that society includes both the manufacturer and the customer. Loss associated with function variability includes, for example, energy and time (problem fixing), and money (replacement cost of parts). Losses associated with harmful side effects could be market shares for the manufacturer and/or the physical effects, such as of the drug thalidomide, for the consumer. TAGUCHIS LOSS FUNCTION Taguchis quality philosophy strongly emphasizes losses or costs. W. H. Moore asserted that this is an enlightened approach that embodies three important premises: for every product quality characteristic there is a target value which results in the smallest loss; deviations from target value always results in increased loss to society; [and] loss should be measured in monetary units (dollars, pesos, francs, etc.). depicts Taguchis typically loss function. The figure also contrasts Taguchis function with the traditional view that states there are no losses if specifications are met. It can be seen that small deviations from the target value result in small losses. These losses, however, increase in a nonlinear fashion as deviations from the target value increase. Where L(Y) is the expected loss associated with the specific value of Y. Essentially, this equation states that the loss is proportional to the square of the deviation of the measured value, Y, from the target value, T. This implies that any deviation from the target (based on customers desires and needs) will diminish customer satisfaction. This is in contrast to the traditional definition of quality that states that quality is conformance to specifications. It should be recognized that the constant k can be determined if the value of L(Y) associated with some Y value are both known. Of course, under many circumstances a quadratic function is only an approximation. Since Taguchis loss function is presented in monetary terms, it provides a common language for all the departments or components within a company. Finally, the loss function can be used to define performance measures of a quality characteristic of a product or service. This property of Taguchis loss function will be taken up in the next section. But to anticipate the discussion of this property, Taguchis quadratic function can be converted to: This can be accomplished by assuming Y has some probability distribution with mean, a and variance o.2 This second mathematical expression states that average or expected loss is due either to process variation or to being off target (called bias), or both. TAGUCHI, ROBUST DESIGN, AND THE DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS Taguchi asserted that the development of his methods of experimental design started in Japan about 1948. These methods were then refined over the next several decades. They were introduced in the United States around 1980. Although, Taguchis approach was built on traditional concepts of design of experiments (DOE), such as factorial and fractional factorial designs and orthogonal arrays, he created and promoted some new DOE techniques such as signal-to-noise ratios, robust designs, and parameter and tolerance designs. Some experts in the field have shown that some of these techniques, especially signal-to-noise ratios, are not optimal under certain conditions. Nonetheless, Taguchis ideas concerning robust design and the design of experiments will now be discussed. DOE is a body of statistical techniques for the effective and efficient collection of data for a number of purposes. Two significant ones are the investigation of research hypotheses and the accurate determination of the relative effects of the many different factors that influence the quality of a product or process. DOE can be employed in both the product design phase and production phase. A crucial component of quality is a products ability to perform its tasks under a variety of conditions. Furthermore, the operating environmental conditions are usually beyond the control of the product designers, and, therefore robust designs are essential. Robust designs are based on the use of DOE techniques for finding product parameter settings (e.g., temperature settings or drill speeds), which enable products to be resilient to changes and variations in working environments. . To achieve economical product quality design, Taguchi proposed three phases: system design, parameter design, and tolerance design. In the first phase, system design, design engineers use their practical experience, along with scientific and engineering principles, to create a viably functional design. To elaborate, system design uses current technology, processes, materials, and engineering methods to define and construct a new system. The system can be a new product or process, or an improved modification of an existing product or process. . EXAMPLES AND CONCLUSIONS As Thomas P. Ryan has stated, Taguchi at the very least, has focused our attention on new objectives in achieving quality improvement. The statistical tools for accomplishing these objectives will likely continue to be developed. Quality management gurus, such as W. Edwards Deming (1900-1993) and Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-), have stressed the importance of continuous quality improvement by concentrating on processes upstream. This is a fundamental break with the traditional practice of relying on inspection downstream. Taguchi emphasized the importance of DOE in improving the quality of the engineering design of products and processes. As previously mentioned, however, his methods are frequently statistically inefficient and cumbersome. Nonetheless, Taguchis design of experiments have been widely applied and theoretically refined and extended. Two application cases and one refinement example will now be discussed. Taguchi methods Taguchi methods are statistical methods developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to, engineering, biotechnology, marketing and advertising. Professional statisticians have welcomed the goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchis development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of Taguchis proposals. Off-line quality control Taguchis rule for manufacturing Taguchi realized that the best opportunity to eliminate variation is during the design of a product and its manufacturing process. Consequently, he developed a strategy for quality engineering that can be used in both contexts. The process has three stages: System design Parameter design Tolerance design System design This is design at the conceptual level, involving creativity and innovation. Parameter design Once the concept is established, the nominal values of the various dimensions and design parameters need to be set, the detail design phase of conventional engineering. Taguchis radical insight was that the exact choice of values required is under-specified by the performance requirements of the system. In many circumstances, this allows the parameters to be chosen so as to minimize the effects on performance arising from variation in manufacture, environment and cumulative damage. This is sometimes called robustification. Tolerance design With a successfully completed parameter design, and an understanding of the effect that the various parameters have on performance, resources can be focused on reducing and controlling variation in the critical few dimensions Taguchi Method Design of Experiments The general steps involved in the Taguchi Method are as follows: 1. Define the process objective, or more specifically, a target value for a performance measure of the process. This may be a flow rate, temperature, etc. The target of a process may also be a minimum or maximum; for example, the goal may be to maximize the output flow rate. The deviation in the performance characteristic from the target value is used to define the loss function for the process. 2. Determine the design parameters affecting the process. Parameters are variables within the process that affect the performance measure such as temperatures, pressures, etc. that can be easily controlled. The number of levels that the parameters should be varied at must be specified. For example, a temperature might be varied to a low and high value of 40 C and 80 C. Increasing the number of levels to vary a parameter at increases the number of experiments to be conducted. 3. Create orthogonal arrays for the parameter design indicating the number of and conditions for each experiment. The selection of orthogonal arrays is based on the number of parameters and the levels of variation for each parameter, and will be expounded below. 4. Conduct the experiments indicated in the completed array to collect data on the effect on the performance measure. 5. Complete data analysis to determine the effect of the different parameters on the performance measure. A detailed description of the execution of these steps will be discussed next. Determining Parameter Design Orthogonal Array The effect of many different parameters on the performance characteristic in a condensed set of experiments can be examined by using the orthogonal array experimental design proposed by Taguchi. Once the parameters affecting a process that can be controlled have been determined, the levels at which these parameters should be varied must be determined. Determining what levels of a variable to test requires an in-depth understanding of the process, including the minimum, maximum, and current value of the parameter. If the difference between the minimum and maximum value of a parameter is large, the values being tested can be further apart or more values can be tested. If the range of a parameter is small, then less values can be tested or the values tested can be closer together. For example, if the temperature of a reactor jacket can be varied between 20 and 80 degrees C and it is known that the current operating jacket temperature is 50 degrees C, three levels might be chosen at 20, 50, and 80 degrees C. Also, the cost of conducting experiments must be considered when determining the number of levels of a parameter to include in the experimental design. In the previous example of jacket temperature, it would be cost prohibitive to do 60 levels at 1 degree intervals. Typically, the number of levels for all parameters in the experimental design is chosen to be the same to aid in the selection of the proper orthogonal array. Knowing the number of parameters and the number of levels, the proper orthogonal array can be selected. Using the array selector table shown below, the name of the appropriate array can be found by looking at the column and row corresponding to the number of parameters and number of levels. Once the name has been determined (the subscript represents the number of experiments that must be completed), the predefined array can be looked up. Links are provided to many of the predefined arrays given in the array selector table. These arrays were created using an algorithm Taguchi developed, and allows for each variable and setting to be tested equally. For example, if we have three parameters (voltage, temperature, pressure) and two levels (high, low), it can be seen the proper array is L4. Clicking on the link L4 to view the L4 array, it can be seen four different experiments are given in the array. The levels designated as 1, 2, 3 etc. should be replaced in the array with the actual lev el values to be varied and P1, P2, P3 should be replaced with the actual parameters (i.e. voltage, temperature, etc.) Array Selector Important Notes Regarding Selection + Use of Orthogonal Arrays Note 1 The array selector assumes that each parameter has the same number of levels. Sometimes this is not the case. Generally, the highest value will be taken or the difference will be split. The following examples offer insight on choosing and properly using an orthogonal array. Examples 1 and 2 focus on array choice, while Example 3 will demonstrate how to use an orthogonal array in one of these situations. Example 1: # Parameter: A, B, C, D = 4 # Levels: 3, 3, 3, 2 = ~3 Array: L9 Example 2: # Parameter: A, B, C, D, E, F = 6 # Levels: 4, 5, 3, 2, 2, 2 = ~3 Array: modified L16 Example 3: A reactors behavior is dependent upon impeller model, mixer speed, the control algorithm employed, and the cooling water valve type. The possible values for each are as follows: Impeller model: A, B, or C Mixer speed: 300, 350, or 400 RPM Control algorithm: PID, PI, or P Valve type: butterfly or globe There are 4 parameters, and each one has 3 levels with the exception of valve type. The highest number of levels is 3, so we will use a value of 3 when choosing our orthogonal array. Using the array selector above, we find that the appropriate orthogonal array is L9: When we replace P1, P2, P3, and P4 with our parameters and begin filling in the parameter values, we find that the L9 array includes 3 levels for valve type, while our system only has 2. The appropriate strategy is to fill in the entries for P4=3 with 1 or 2 in a random, balanced way. For example: Here, the third value was chosen twice as butterfly and once as global. Note 2 If the array selected based on the number of parameters and levels includes more parameters than are used in the experimental design, ignore the additional parameter columns. For example, if a process has 8 parameters with 2 levels each, the L12 array should be selected according to the array selector. As can be seen below, the L12 Array has columns for 11 parameters (P1-P11). The right 3 columns should be ignored. Analyzing Experimental Data Once the experimental design has been determined and the trials have been carried out, the measured performance characteristic from each trial can be used to analyze the relative effect of the different parameters. To demonstrate the data analysis procedure, the following L9 array will be used, but the principles can be transferred to any type of array. In this array, it can be seen that any number of repeated observations (trials) may be used. Ti,j represents the different trials with i = experiment number and j = trial number. It should be noted that the Taguchi method allows for the use of a noise matrix including external factors affecting the process outcome rather than repeated trials, but this is outside of the scope of this article. To determine the effect each variable has on the output, the signal-to-noise ratio, or the SN number, needs to be calculated for each experiment conducted. The calculation of the SN for the first experiment in the array above is shown below for the case of a specific target value of the performance characteristic. In the equations below, yi is the mean value and si is the variance. yi is the value of the performance characteristic for a given experiment. {SN_{i}}=10logfrac{bar{y_{i}}^2}{{s_{i}}^2} Where bar y_{i}=frac {1}{N_{i}}sum_{u=1}^{N_{i}}y_{i,u} s_{i}^2=frac {1}{N_{i}-1}sum_{u=1}^{N_{i}}left ( y_{i,u}-bar y_{i} right ) i = Experiment;number u=Trial;number N_{i}=Number;of;trials;for;experiment;i For the case of minimizing the performance characteristic, the following definition of the SN ratio should be calculated: {SN_{i}}=-10logleft(sum_{u=1}^{N_{i}}frac{y_{u}^2}{N_{i}}right) For the case of maximizing the performance characteristic, the following definition of the SN ratio should be calculated: {SN_{i}}=-10logleft[frac{1}{N_{i}}sum_{u=1}^{N_{i}}frac{1}{y_{u}^2}right] After calculating the SN ratio for each experiment, the average SN value is calculated for each factor and level. This is done as shown below for Parameter 3 (P3) in the array: {SN_{color{red}P3,1}}=frac{(S_{N1}+S_{N6}+S_{N8})}{3},! {SN_{color{blue}P3,2}}=frac{(S_{N2}+S_{N4}+S_{N9})}{3},! {SN_{color{green}P3,3}}=frac{(S_{N3}+S_{N5}+S_{N7})}{3},! Once these SN ratio values are calculated for each factor and level, they are tabulated as shown below and the range R (R = high SN low SN)of the SN for each parameter is calculated and entered into the table. The larger the R value for a parameter, the larger the effect the variable has on the process. This is because the same change in signal causes a larger effect on the output variable being measured. Problems Problem: You have just produced one thousand 55 gallon drums of sesame oil for sale to your distributors. However, just before you are to ship oil, one of your employees remembers that one of the oil barrels was temporarily used to store insecticide and is almost surely contaminated. Unfortunately, all of the barrels look the same. One barrel of sesame oil sells for $1000, while each assay for insecticide in food oil costs $1200 and takes 3 days. Tests for insectide are extremely expensive. What do you do? Solution: Extreme multiplexing. This is similar to using a Taguchi method but optimized for very sparse systems and specific cases. For example, instead of 1000 barrels, let us consider 8 barrels for now, one of which is contaminated. We could test each one, but that would be highly expensive. Another solution is to mix samples from each barrel and test the mixtures. Mix barrels 1,2,3,4 > Sample A Mix barrels 1,2,5,6 > Sample B Mix barrels 1,3,5,7 > Sample C We claim that from testing only these three mixtures, we can determine which of the 8 barrels was contaminated. Let us consider some possible results of these tests. We will use the following label scheme: +/-,+/-,+/- in order of A, B, C. Thus, +,-,+ indicates A and C showed contamination but not B. Possible Result 1: -,-,- The only barrel not mixed in was #8, so it is contaminated. Possible Result 2: +,-,- Barrel #4 appears in A, but not in B and C. Since only A returned positive, barrel #4 was contaminated. Possible Result 3: -,+,- Barrel #6 appears in B, but not in A and C. Since only B returned positive, barrel #6 was contaminated. We can see that we have 23 = 8 possible results, each of which corresponds to a particular barrel being contaminated. We leave the rest of the cases for the reader to figure out. Solution with 1,000 barrels: Mix samples from each barrel and test mixtures. Each mixture will consist of samples from a unique combination of 500 barrels. Experiments required = log2 (1000) =~10. Solution with 1,000,000 barrels: Experiments required = log2(1000000)=~20. Thus, by using extreme multiplexing, we can greatly reduce the # of experiments needed, since the # of experiments scales with log2(# of barrels) instead of # of barrels. Worked out Example A microprocessor company is having difficulty with its current yields. Silicon processors are made on a large die, cut into pieces, and each one is tested to match specifications. The company has requested that you run experiments to increase processor yield. The factors that affect processor yields are temperature, pressure, doping amount, and deposition rate. a) Question: Determine the Taguchi experimental design orthogonal array. The operating conditions for each parameter and level are list A: Temperature A1 = 100 ºC A2 = 150 ºC (current) A3 = 200 ºC B: Pressure B1 = 2 psi B2 = 5 psi (current) B3 = 8 psi C: Doping Amount C1 = 4% C2 = 6% (current) C3 = 8% D: Deposition Rate D1 = 0.1 mg/s D2 = 0.2 mg/s (current) D3 = 0.3 mg/s a) Solution: The L9 orthogonal array should be used. The filled in orthogonal array should look like this: This setup allows the testing of all four variables without having to run 81 [=34=(3 Temperatures)(3 Pressures)(3 Doping Amounts)(3 Deposition rates)] separate trials. b) Question: Conducting three trials for each experiment, the data below was collected. Compute the SN ratio for each experiment for the target value case, create a response chart, and determine the parameters that have the highest and lowest effect on the processor yield. b) Solution: Shown below is the calculation and tabulation of the SN ratio. {S_{m1}}=frac{(87.3+82.3+70.7)^{2}}{3}=19248.0,! {S_{T1}}=87.3^2+82.3^2+70.7^2=19393.1,! {S_{e1}}={S_{T1}}-{S_{m1}}=19393.1-19248.0=145.0,! {V_{e1}}=frac{S_{e1}}{N-1}=frac{145.1}{2}=72.5,! {SN_{1}}=10 log frac{(1/N)(S_{m1}-V_{e1})}{V_{e1}}=10 log frac{(1/3)(19248.0-145.1)}{145.1}=19.5,! Shown below is the response table. This table was created by calculating an average SN value for each factor. A sample calculation is shown for Factor B (pressure): {SN_{color{red}B1}}=frac{(19.5+17.6+22.2)}{3}=19.8,! {SN_{color{blue}B2}}=frac{(21.4+14.3+24.0)}{3}=19.9,! {SN_{color{green}B3}}=frac{(19.3+29.2+20.4)}{3}=23.0,! The effect of this factor is then calculated by determining the range: Delta = Max Min = 23.0-19.8=3.2,! It can be seen that deposition rate has the largest effect on the processor yield and that temperature has the smallest effect on the processor yield. Extreme Example: Sesame Seed Suffering Problem: You have just produced one thousand 55 gallon drums of sesame oil for sale to your distributors. However, just before you are to ship oil, one of your employees remembers that one of the oil barrels was temporarily used to store insecticide and is almost surely contaminated. Unfortunately, all of the barrels look the same. One barrel of sesame oil sells for $1000, while each assay for insecticide in food oil costs $1200 and takes 3 days. Tests for insectide are extremely expensive. What do you do? Solution: Extreme multiplexing. This is similar to using a Taguchi method but optimized for very sparse systems and specific cases. For example, instead of 1000 barrels, let us consider 8 barrels for now, one of which are contaminated. We could test each one, but that would be highly expensive. Another solution is to mix samples from each barrel and test the mixtures. Mix barrels 1,2,3,4 > Sample A Mix barrels 1,2,5,6 > Sample B Mix barrels 1,3,5,7 > Sample C We claim that from testing only these three mixtures, we can determine which of the 8 barrels was contaminated. Let us consider some possible results of these tests. We will use the following label scheme: +/-,+/-,+/- in order of A, B, C. Thus, +,-,+ indicates A and C showed contamination but not B. Possible Result 1: -,-,- The only barrel not mixed in was #8, so it is contaminated. Possible Result 2: +,-,- Barrel #4 appears in A, but not in B and C. Since only A returned positive, barrel #4 was contaminated. Possible Result 3: -,+,- Barrel #6 appears in B, but not in A and C. Since only B returned positive, barrel #6 was contaminated. We can see that we have 23 = 8 possible results, each of which corresponds to a particular barrel being contaminated. We leave the rest of the cases for the reader to figure out. Solution with 1,000 barrels: Mix samples from each barrel and test mixtures. Each mixture will consist of samples from a unique combination of 500 barrels. Experiments required = log2(1000)=~10. Solution with 1,000,000 barrels: Experiments required = log2(1000000)=~20. Thus, by using extreme multiplexing, we can greatly reduce the # of experiments needed, since the # of experiments scales with log2(# of barrels) instead of # of barrels. Other Methods of Experimental Design Two other methods for determining experimental design are factorial design and random design. For scenarios with a small number of parameters and levels (1-3) and where each variable contributes significantly, factorial design can work well to determine the specific interactions between variables. However, factorial design gets increasingly complex with an increase in the number of variables. For large systems with many variables (50+) where there are few interactions between variables, random design can be used. Random design assigns each variable a state based on a uniform sample (ex: 3 states = 0.33 probability) for the selected number of experiments. When used properly (in a large system), random design usually produces an experimental design that is desired. However, random design works poorly for systems with a small number of variables. To obtain a even better understanding of these three different methods, its good to get a visual of these three methods. It will illustrate the degree of efficiency for each experimental design depending on the number of variables and the number of states for each variable. The following will have the three experimental designs for the same scenario. Scenario. You have a CSTR that has four(4) variables and each variable has three or two states. You are to design an experiment to systematically test the effect of each of the variables in the current CSTR. Experimental Design #1: Factorial Design By looking at the # variables and # states, there should be a total of 54 experiments because (3impellers)(3speeds)(3controllers)(2valves)=54. Heres a list of these 54 experiments: Experimental Design #2: Taguchi Method Since you know the # of states and variables, you can refer to the table above in this wiki and obtain the correct Taguchi array. It turns out to be a L9 array. With the actual variables and states, the L9 array should look like the following: Experimental Design #3: Random Design Since we do not know the number of signal recoveries we want and we dont know the probabilities of each state to happen, it will be difficult to construct a random design table. It will mostly be used for extreme large experiments. Refer to the link below to help you obtain a better grasp on the random design concept. Dr. Genichi Taguchi Dr. Taguchi built on the work of Plackett and Burman by combining statistics and engineering to achieve rapid improvements in product designs and manufacturing processes. His efforts led to a subset of screening experiments commonly referred to the Taguchi Techniques or the Taguchi Method ®. Major Premises of Taguchi Techniques Focus on the robustness of the product. Make the product correctly in spite of variation in materials and processes. Design the product to be insensitive to the common cause variation that exists in the process. Quantify the effects of deviation using the Quality Loss Function The Quality Loss Function, L(y), provides both a conceptual and a quantifiable means to demonstrate the impact of deviation from target. Noise Factors Taguchi calls common cause variation the â€Å"noise.† Noise factors are classified into three categories: Outer Noise, Inner Noise, and Between Product Noise. Taguchis approach is not to eliminate or ignore the noise factors; Taguchi techniques aim to reduce the effect or impact of the noise on the product quality. Quality Loss Function The Loss Function can help put the cost of deviation from target into perspective. The loss represents a summation of rework, repair, warranty cost plus customer dissatisfaction, bad reputation, and eventual loss of market share for the manufacturer. Signal to Noise Ratio Taguchis emphasis on minimizing deviation from target led him to develop measures of the process output that incorporate both the location of the output as well as the variation. These measures are called signal to noise ratios. The signal to noise ratio provides a measure of the impact of noise factors on performance. The larger the S/N, the more robust the product is against noise. Calculation of the S/N ratio depends on the experimental objective: Derivation of Taguchi Matrices Taguchi matrices are derived from classical Full Factorial arrays. As with Plackett-Burman designs, Taguchi designs are based on the assumption that interactions are not likely to be significant. Taguchi designs have been developed to study factors at two-levels, three-levels, four-levels, and even with mixed levels. The levels in Taguchi matrices have historically been reported as Level 1 and Level 2 for two-level experiments. These levels are no different than the Low (-) Level and the High (+) Level used in Full Factorial designs and by Plackett and Burman. For more than two levels, experimenters typically use Level 1, Level 2, Level 3, etc. for Taguchi designs. Types of Taguchi Designs A series of Taguchi designs for studying factors at two-levels are available. Two-level designs include the L4, L8, and L16 matrices. The L4 design studies up to 3 factors. The most popular Taguchi designs are the L8 and L16 that study up to 7 and 15 factors respectively. The L4, L8, and L16 designs are geometric designs based on the 22, 23, and 24 Full Factorial matrices respectively. They are based on the Full Factorials so that interactions can be studied if desired. Non-geometric Taguchi designs include the L12, L20, and L24 designs that can study up to 11, 19, and 23 factors respectively. There are other two-level Taguchi Matrices, both geometric and non-geometric, designed to study even more factors, but it is rare that larger numbers of factors can be studied in a practical, feasible, or cost-effective manner. Analysis of Interactions While Taguchi views interactions as noise factors and most likely not significant, he does offer techniques to evaluate the impact of two-way interactions on responses. Taguchi provides two techniques to explore interactions in a screening experiment. The linear graph is a graphical tool that facilitates the assignment of factors and their interactions to the experimental matrix. Some experimenters find the interaction tables developed from the linear graphs to be easier to use. Three-Level Matrices * Taguchi screening designs for three levels exist. o The L9 looks at 4 factors at 3 levels. o An L27 can be used to study up to 13 factors at 3 levels and an L81 can evaluate up to 40 factors at 3 levels. * Taguchi designs for 4 levels and 5 levels are available. Matrices with Outer Arrays